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Foundations: Blockchain

What is the UTXO Model?The UTXO model treats money on a blockchain not as a balance inside an account, but as a collection of spendable pieces created by past transactions

What is the UTXO Model?The UTXO model treats money on a blockchain not as a balance inside an account, but as a collection of spendable pieces created by past transactions. That small shift changes how validation, privacy, fees, parallelism, and smart contract design work across systems from Bitcoin to extended UTXO chains.Mar 21, 202622 min read

What Is an Uncle Block?Uncle blocks reveal a basic fact about proof-of-work blockchains: the network is never perfectly synchronized

What Is an Uncle Block?Uncle blocks reveal a basic fact about proof-of-work blockchains: the network is never perfectly synchronized. Two miners can do valid work at nearly the same time, and the protocol must decide what to keep, what to discard, and how much of that “lost” work should still count.Mar 21, 202621 min read

What is a Blockchain Transaction?A blockchain transaction looks simple from the outside: send coins, call a contract, update a balance

What is a Blockchain Transaction?A blockchain transaction looks simple from the outside: send coins, call a contract, update a balance. But underneath, it is the basic unit of state change, authorization, ordering, and fee payment that makes a blockchain work without a central operator.Mar 21, 202626 min read

What is a Soft Fork?A soft fork changes a blockchain’s consensus rules without immediately breaking older nodes

What is a Soft Fork?A soft fork changes a blockchain’s consensus rules without immediately breaking older nodes. That sounds simple, but the real idea is subtler: the new rules must define a stricter subset of what was already allowed, so old software still sees upgraded blocks as valid even when it no longer understands them fully.Mar 21, 202623 min read

What is a Merkle Tree?A Merkle tree solves a very practical problem: how do you commit to a large set of data with one short fingerprint, and later prove that one item belongs to that set without revealing everything else? That simple idea sits inside blocks, light clients, state proofs, and many of the scaling tricks blockchains rely on

What is a Merkle Tree?A Merkle tree solves a very practical problem: how do you commit to a large set of data with one short fingerprint, and later prove that one item belongs to that set without revealing everything else? That simple idea sits inside blocks, light clients, state proofs, and many of the scaling tricks blockchains rely on.Mar 21, 202623 min read

What is an Orphan Block?An orphan block is what you get when a blockchain briefly disagrees with itself

What is an Orphan Block?An orphan block is what you get when a blockchain briefly disagrees with itself. Two blocks can be valid at the same height, but only one branch becomes canonical, and the other block is left outside the main chain — a small event with big consequences for miner rewards, security, and network design.Mar 21, 202625 min read

What is Chain Reorganization?A blockchain can tell two honest stories at once for a short time

What is Chain Reorganization?A blockchain can tell two honest stories at once for a short time. A chain reorganization is the moment the network stops following one branch and switches to another, which is why a payment that looked confirmed can sometimes move back to pending.Mar 21, 202625 min read

What is a Hard Fork?A hard fork is not just a software update

What is a Hard Fork?A hard fork is not just a software update. It is a change to a blockchain’s consensus rules that can leave old nodes unable to recognize the new chain as valid, which is why hard forks can upgrade a network, split a community, or create a new asset overnight.Mar 21, 202621 min read

What is Blockchain Latency?Latency is the time between a blockchain event happening and the network treating it as real enough to act on

What is Blockchain Latency?Latency is the time between a blockchain event happening and the network treating it as real enough to act on. That sounds simple, but in practice it spans propagation, inclusion, confirmation, and finality — and each step exposes a different tradeoff between speed, safety, and decentralization.Mar 21, 202626 min read

What Is a Mempool?A mempool is the waiting room where blockchain transactions live after broadcast but before block inclusion

What Is a Mempool?A mempool is the waiting room where blockchain transactions live after broadcast but before block inclusion. That sounds simple, but the mempool is really where a chain’s fee market, transaction ordering, replacement rules, and much of its MEV exposure are decided.Mar 21, 202623 min read

What Is a Fork in Blockchain?A blockchain fork sounds like a special event, but the basic version happens whenever different nodes temporarily disagree about the latest valid chain

What Is a Fork in Blockchain?A blockchain fork sounds like a special event, but the basic version happens whenever different nodes temporarily disagree about the latest valid chain. The important question is not just what a fork is, but how a network decides whether to merge back into one history or split into two lasting ones.Mar 21, 202624 min read

What is a Genesis Block?A blockchain promises a shared history, but that history has to start somewhere

What is a Genesis Block?A blockchain promises a shared history, but that history has to start somewhere. The genesis block is that starting point: the first accepted block or initial state that every node treats as the common anchor for everything that follows.Mar 21, 202622 min read